Anne Wentworth was a late seventeenth century
religious writer who was excommunicated by her Anabaptist church for publicly
condemning her husband and church for hypocrisy and formalism. This essay will
consider notions of the public and the private in Seventeenth century England, and show that sectarian women had some access to the public realm via religious
writing, but that Wentworth was perceived as having transgressed boundaries by
writing about ‘private’ issues. Wentworth’s justification for doing so was that
it was not her will but God’s. She
presents utter self-abnegation as an essential process that enabled her to prophesy
the coming battle between good and evil figured as Zion and Babylon. For this
reason, Stephen Greenblatt’s concept of self-fashioning will be useful for
exploring Wentworth’s portrayal of her empowering transformation into the
spirit of true Christianity.
I will consider Wentworth’s loss of
‘self’ and fashioning of a new ‘spiritually androgynous’ prophetic self before
examining more closely the process by which the
conflict between ‘Zion’ and ‘Babylon’
was discovered, and a private matter became so very public. We will see
that the contradiction perceived by Wentworth between the public and private
behaviour of her husband was then felt by her to be mirrored more widely by his
‘brethren,’ and that this led to a revelation that her husband and her church
symbolised the hypocrisy and formalism of all forms of Christianity throughout
the nation. Wentworth’s desire to communicate this discovery was not supported
by any prescriptive programme for remedying it and it was this, it seems,
combined with the intensely personal nature of her writings which prevented initial
interest from developing into any significant public support.
Anne Wentworth began to receive
revelations in 1670 at the age of forty. She had been excommunicated by her
Anabaptist church by the time of the publication of her surviving writings, A True Account of Anne Wentworth (1676), A Vindication of A. W. (1677), Englands
Spiritual Pill (1679),
and The
Revelation of Jesus Christ (1679.)These
four tracts are highly polemical works in which she accuses her husband,
William, of cruelly abusing her, and condemns his hypocrisy and formalism and
that of the Anabaptists and all formal religion. She warns of imminent
Apocalypse.
Scholarship around gender in the seventeenth century has
tended to perpetuate the concept of a public, political sphere for men and a
private, domestic sphere for women, largely drawing on the contemporary
political work of John Locke and Jurgen Habermas’ The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (1962.) However,
several scholars are sceptical of such a neat distinction. Alison Searle argues
that “(T)here is this idea that women disappeared into a
private sphere, but in fact there was a period of extraordinary energy and
creativity which included women” (2014 p24,) and Patricia Crawford shows that ‘public’ and
‘private’ were ‘permeable concepts’ and that ‘ women used religious
beliefs & arguments about conscience to justify action in the public
sphere”(1993. p57.) Lois Schwoerer provides evidence that
between 1640-1700 there were approximately 700 tracts by women, mostly
sectarian, even though “traditionally defined, the family was inimical to a
woman’s assuming a public persona” (1998. p59-61.)
This unprecedented engagement with
print culture by middle class women is often argued to be a product of greater
literacy among Protestant women generally and greater freedom of religious
expression for sectarian women in particular. It is also commonplace to argue
that the disruption of social structures and hierarchies during the civil wars and revolution encouraged women to
challenge the gender hierarchy. However,
Katherine Gillespie feels there has been too much focus on the
transgressiveness and disorderliness of women, arguing that active roles for
women were nontransgressive and, in fact, necessary to the founding of
independent churches. Women, she argues,
“played a much greater part than we have been led to believe in the
emergence of the popular press, freedom of expression and the ‘public sphere’
so important for democracy” (2004 p28.)
It seems that Wentworth’s first writings
and prophecies were encouraged and supported by her church[1] but that she was perceived as transgressing
her bounds when she brought a private matter – her abuse at the hands of her
husband - into public. Wentworth’s four tracts are largely justifications for
doing this. However, before discussing
them, we need to think about exactly what is signified by ‘public’ and
‘private’ in the context of Wentworth’s texts. Erica Longfellow urges great caution
in using these terms as an analytical tool because their meanings have not
remained stable: “We tend to agree - as did early modern people - that that
which is public is that which has national or community relevance” (2006.
p315.) However, the word ‘private’ has changed radically. “Before 1700,
‘private’ was essentially a negative term – whatever did not pertain to the
nation or community” (ibid.) People did not tend to use the word ‘private’ to
describe solitary devotional or contemplative activities and, in fact, “many of
the aspects of society we now understand as part of our right to privacy were
generally deemed in the seventeenth century to be rightly available to the
community” (p321.)
Wentworth uses the word ‘public’ many
times but ‘private’ only once. Speaking of the rift between herself and her
husband and his Anabaptist brethren in A
True Account, she says “If it had been a thing that could possible a been
ended in private, then it should never have become public by any will of mine” (p
4-5.) It seems that ‘private’ already includes her Anabaptist community.
Wentworth also makes it clear that others were aware of the conflict, “This was
not done in a corner, neither am I a stranger in London but in and about the
city, an hundred that were eye witnesses” (Account
p9.) This might seem rather public to 21st century minds but in all
four texts, ‘public’ is used to refer to wider society reached by the method of
publication.
In Vindication,
Wentworth responds to the brethren’s charge that “I did unduly publish
things to the scandal and prejudice of my husband’(p2) saying “There is nothing
hid from (God) and this matter is now
become a public figure,” and asserting that God had revealed “that my
oppressions and deliverance had a
Publick Ministry of meaning wrapt up in them” [2]
(pp11-12.) Although the word ‘private’ is not used again, Wentworth presents
the negative of ‘public’ in terms of concealment of truth. In England’s Spiritual Pill, she says, “My Earthly Husband could not bear, that God
should make good his word, where he saith ”There
is nothing covered which shall not be revealed, neither hid that shall not be
known.”[3]
(p728.) At the beginning of The
Revelation, an anonymous source reports that the Lord had said ‘it was his
will, that it should be made publick.” A
True Account and Vindication
contain the most extensive description of her life and The Revelation of Jesus Christ and England’s Spiritual Pill a detailed account of her apocalyptic
prophecies, but all texts include the personal and the public and switch between
them dizzyingly.
Readers of the tracts are presented with
an account of good versus evil, and the creation of the prophet Anne Wentworth
is portrayed as a product of this conflict. For this reason, Stephen
Greenblatt’s concept of ‘self-fashioning’ is useful. Self-fashioning, for Greenblatt, “involves submission to an absolute
power or authority situated at least partially outside the self” (p8.)
Furthermore, “self-fashioning is achieved in relation to something perceived as
alien, strange, or hostile” which must be “discovered or invented in order to
be attacked and destroyed” and “the alien is always constructed as a distorted
image of the authority.” We see that Wentworth, in establishing herself as the
prophet of God and speaking in terms of ‘Zion,’ and ‘Babylon’[4], is distinguishing true
Christians from false Christians, and doing so on the levels of home, community
and nation. Greenblatt adds, “If both
the authority and the alien are located outside the self, they are at the same
time experienced as inward necessities, so that both submission and destruction
are always already internalized.” This
sense of internal submission and destruction is central to Greenblatt’s
self-fashioning. Wentworth stresses the degree to which her ‘self’ needed to be
destroyed and then submitted to God before she could be healed and become the
passive mouthpiece of God. Greenblatt tells us that “self-fashioning always involves some experience of
threat, some effacement or undermining, some loss of self” (pp8-9.)
Wentworth describes her loss of
self beginning in her marriage, “18 years I had been my husband’s wife and
consumed to skin and bone, a forlorn, sad, spectacle to be seen, unlike a
woman” (Account p9.) At the point of death, “God spake as he did to the
woman, "Luke 13.11.
and said unto her, Woman, thou art loosed
from thine infirmity; and he laid his hands on her, and immediately she was
made straight, and glorified God: and I was as immediately restored as she”
(ibid.) However, Wentworth was not restored to herself but underwent a further
spiritual disintegration, “My God has so many years emptying me from vessel to
vessel, breaking me all to pieces in my self and making me to become as nothing
before him. He called and commanded me into this work when I was as a thing
that is not my own eyes” (Vindication. p3.)
As Hilary Hinds observes, this public ministry is “contingent on the
fragmentation of the pre-existing Wentworth – this completion of the
dissolution of the self that marks her out as fit to serve God” (p103.)
Wentworth feels the need to stress this.
In Vindication, she says “In
this great work, I have no wit, no favour, no understanding, no will of my own”
(p 8,) in The Revelation “as for my own will, of that I have none” (p6) and
in England’s Spiritual Pill, “I am
not in my own will, but have given up myself to all the will of God” (p755.)
This is clearly central to her message.
In Vindication,
Wentworth says that her husband and his brethren had called her ‘a heathen and
a publican[5]’(p1)
for defying the church, and presented her to others as “proud, passionate,
revengeful, discontented and mad” (p2.) They portray her defiance of
patriarchal authority as a personal transgression. Wentworth must show that it
was no transgression at all but submission
to God, the ultimate patriarch. For this, she called upon Protestant
tradition of speaking of Christ as her spouse. In her study of Foxe’s female
martyrs, Megan Hickerson shows that
“Foxe’s disorderly women martyrs are ultimately seen as subordinate to a
husband, their rejection of earthly authority including that of their earthly
husbands, proving abject self-abnegation” (p1051.) In Vindication, Wentworth refers to William
as her ‘earthly husband’ (p5) and Christ as her ‘heavenly bridegroom’(p9,) and
makes an bold demand for her ‘ just and
necessary liberty to attend a more
than ordinary call and command of God to publish the things which concern the peace of my own soul and of the whole nation”(p6.) This is both a
matter of private conscience and a public duty.
Interestingly, gendered justifications
and indeed a gendered self disappear almost entirely when Wentworth
prophesises. There is little use of
female biblical figures. In True Account
she says, ‘they might as well have accused Abigail for saying her husband Nabal
was churlish and foolish’ but then immediately adds “and have reproved Moses
for writing” (p12.) Katherine Gillespie argues that sectarian women
“articulated their vision of equality predicated on androgynous spirituality as
opposed to embodied physicality” (p33.) Wentworth presents her spirituality in
warrior-like terms which contrasts with her physical body in Spiritual Pill when the Lord says, “They would not have me the Lord to choose a
weak woman yet can they not at all hinder me; for I have chosen thee to be my
Battle-Ax, to cut all formality down” (p749.) In True Account, Wentworth speaks of God’s promise that ‘he which
overcometh shall inherit all things, and I will be his God and he shall be my
son, which includes daughters as well as sons” (p1.) This clearly asserts
spiritual equality. It also brings to
mind the words of the prophet Dewens Morry who, on being told she could not be
the son of God because she was a woman responded “No, you are a woman. I am a man” (in Mack. 1982. p37.) Here masculinity
is figured in terms of strong faith and femininity in terms of spiritual
weakness. Phyllis Mack describes this as not uncommon, and cites Margaret Lynam
calling ministers ‘silly women – ignorant and unstable,’ and Ann Gargill
railing against the Anglican Church as a ‘harlot’ (p37.) For Wentworth,
‘Babylon’ is all formal religion and she refers to it as a ‘whore’ [6]
throughout The Revelation, and to the
people discrediting her prophecies as ‘foolish virgins’ in True Account, The Revelation and Spiritual Pill.[7]
One particularly interesting example of
the transcendence of gender limitations is Wentworth’s identification with
Mordecai from the Book of Esther. In
this book, proud Haman, whom she likens to her husband in True Account (p17,) is destroyed, and long-oppressed Mordecai
raised in his place. Mordecai is also mentioned in The Revelation,
O this God! so
great in power! wonderful is his Name!
Who will exalt those of low degree, & give his Enemies shame,
When the time, to advance poor Mordecai, was come,
Then was the time, for to hang up proud Haman (p4)
Who will exalt those of low degree, & give his Enemies shame,
When the time, to advance poor Mordecai, was come,
Then was the time, for to hang up proud Haman (p4)
It is significant that Wentworth
chooses not to identify with Esther who is, after all, the hero of the story or
her intercessory role. Neither does she mention Mordecai’s actions in warning
of a murder plot but presents him passively being raised by God because the
time ‘was come.’ Vickie Taft wonders what Wentworth aimed to achieve
in The Revelation “Did she hope to
save "Babylon" from God's destructive wrath by convincing its sinners
to repent? Did she hope to hasten Christ's Second Coming?” and concludes
“Clearly, The Revelation is vindicatory and vilificatory rather
than militant or reformative. Wentworth never calls for any specific social
action therein or suggests that the Apocalypse can either be halted or hastened.”[8]
The same observation of fatalism can be
made in England’s Spiritual Pill,
“No
wonder they carp at words, and condemn the Message and despise the Messenger,
as their forefathers, the Priests and Pharisees, did to our Lord Jesus….. those
that are strangers unto God, cannot receive his word no more than they did in
the days of Old. For the same spirit acts now as it did then….For it was their
work to rail, and they could do no otherways” (p722.)
This appears like Calvinistic
predestination at its most pessimistic. The Apocalypse is nigh and people are
either on the right side or they are not, and this is determined by their
‘spirit.’
“The two spirits which divide the world are now in contest together,
the children of light and the children of darkness. The great Battle of the
Lord is begun; the Pharisees and foolish Virgins joyn with the wicked and
prophane against the true seed of God.”(Pill
p732.)
The focus is solely upon God’s
power in crushing the ungodly and raising the ‘true seed’ recognised by their
inner grace.
To understand this separation of the outward
deeds and inward spirit and how a marital conflict expanded to become a
national one, we need to look in more detail at the sequence of events in
Wentworth’s life. In Vindication, she describes herself as a
victim of psychological and physical abuse. With his “Barbarous actions” he had “over-done
such things as not only in the Spirit of
them will one day be judged a murdering of, but had long since really proved so if God had not wonderfully
supported and preserved me” (p 4.) However, she spends little time on the abuse
itself and focuses much more on how it contrasted with William’s public
persona. “I am censured and reproached by persons who judge onely by outward appearance, not Righteous Judgement” (Ibid.) In True Account, she implores people to
examine “his carriage to a wife this 23 years, not his carriage to the World
before men for that is fair enough but what is it in secret” (p7.) In his
community, her husband appears a good man, “(A)ll esteem my husband as he is an
honest, moral man full of blind zeal and hath the gift of his tongue. A man very fit for business and employment in
this World, for he will not cheat or cozen any man’ (p12.) People do not see
that “the same spirit he brought into the world with him, yet remains to this
day” (p7.) God will reveal to Wentworth that he has “set thee and thy Husband
for a true figure of Zion and Babilon, of the true and false Church, the two
spirits I have placed in you. He is the oppressing, and thou the oppressed” (Pill p749.)
Wentworth’s anger and indignation are
not directed solely at her husband but also at the male authorities of her
church, whom she perceives as equally hypocritically biased, “Being an
Anabaptist church member, they fall upon me because they cannot bear the truth
to be spoken of their brother” ( Account p7.)
She appeals to people who condemn her on their account to confirm “What was my condition when my
husband brought three men that did fright and amaze me and astonish me to see,
knowing no cause I gave them, nor what I had done more than this work.” They
“whet their tongues as sharp swords and teeth as spears and arrows” (Ibid
pp16-17.)
For Wentworth, the intervention of the
elders of her church in her marital woes only compounded them. It is easy to
see her experience of institutional hypocrisy as almost more damaging than the
personal hypocrisy of her husband. It was at this stage that she reached her
lowest point and received her revelation. Wentworth cried unto the lord to know
‘why he suffered them to come and trouble and torment’ her and received the
reply,
“I
suffered four Men out of four of their Churches to come and deal with thee, for
to figure out the four Pillars their formal House, stands upon, which are all
rotten: and therefore I the Lord will throw down this their House of
formality…Thou shalt declare the downfall of Babylon, thou shalt publish where she is and what she is; that her
plagues are a coming and where they shall end. I the Lord will begin with the
refined part of Babylon who think
themselves holier than others…whereas they are but painted sepulchres,
erroneous and censorious oppressors, being led by a lying spirit, with these,
will I the Lord begin, and end with the wicked and prophane”(Pill 729-30.)
Here we have the core of
Wentworth’s message and purpose; the defining problem with society that she was
chosen to condemn; the distinction between the two spirits; the point of
encounter between the authority and the alien at which her prophetic self was
formed. The alien is self-identified
Christians who ‘think themselves holier than others;’ who behave one way in
public and another in private; who perform, as her husband and his brethren
did, the formalities of religion whilst abusing the weak and oppressed in a
most unchristlike manner. Her aim from this moment of revelation is to show the
‘hypocrites and formalists,’ to be in the same state of damnation as the openly,
publicly ‘wicked and prophane.’ In fact, it is even more urgent to deal with
this hidden evil. The Lord will begin
with them. Wentworth makes this parallel between private sin and public sin
several times. [9]
The language of concealment too is strong in all four texts. Wentworth repeats
Luke 12.2.3 “There is nothing covered that shall not be revealed, neither hid
that shall not be known” in True Account adding
“it cannot be avoided, there is no help for it, but it will come to World’s
hearing” (p10.) In Vindication, “He
knows the secrets of all hearts, we are all open and naked in his sight: there
is no dissembling in his sight” (p 11) and in Revelation, God will ‘make known’ the truth of Wentworth’s
innocence (p20.) References to hypocrisy
and formality [10]abound
and the related quote ‘the letter killeth but the spirit quickeneth’ is found
in True Account, Vindication, and Spiritual Pill.[11]
It is helpful to look at this quote in its context. Paul says,
“You yourselves are
our letter, written on our hearts, known and read by everyone. You show that
you are a letter from Christ, the result of our ministry, written not with ink
but with the Spirit of the living God, not on tablets of stone but on tablets
of human hearts… He has made us competent as ministers of a new covenant—not of
the letter but of the Spirit; for the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life.”
(2 Corinthians 3: 2-6 KJV)
Wentworth herself is the letter from Christ and will be raised up by God for
what is written in her heart. Wentworth is transformed from an emotionally and
physically worn-down woman to a powerful prophet, vindicated by God. Her
passive suffering becomes righteous anger and she gains strength from her sense
of ‘a more than ordinary calling.’ Searle encapsulates this attitude, “Her
authorial persona was thus a dizzying juxtaposition of extreme self-abnegation
and triumphant spiritual exaltation” (36.) She begins to write with a new
fervour. She predicts the end of the world before the New Year of 1678. She
warns the King and Lord Mayor. Her tone is one of utter certainty and purpose.
When her marriage was a private misery, she was crushed by it. Now it is a
‘publick ministry’ she is empowered by God and she speaks with authority in
terms of internal power. Revelation I states boldly, “Hearken to this all you,
that are in forms of Religion; for it is not form, but power, that will secure
you from the wrath of God in the evil day” (Revelation.
p1) The title page of England’s
Spiritual Pill announces it to be “A Through-Reformation of Church-worship,
from Hypocritical and Idolatrous Formalities” and cites I Thessalonians 5.19,
20: “Quench not the Spirit, Despise not Prophesyings.”
Anne Wentworth makes herself and her life
public because she is no longer herself and she has left behind that life. She
has been fashioned into a symbol of the spirit of true Christianity in the
battle of good against evil, of Zion against Babylon. Her message is that true
Christianity is in the spirit rather than the letter of religion, that the
hypocrites and formalists are as damned as the wicked and profane and the end
is nigh. However, although she feels compelled to communicate this discovery
urgently and provide examples and comparisons and reiterations of God’s wrath,
she supplies no prescriptions for salvation. Even in the section of England’s Spiritual Pill where Wentworth
says “These are the Principles of my Faith, which I profess and own” (p723)
there is nothing that differs noticeably from the ethos of the non-conformist
churches she criticises. Taft suspects that Wentworth had to spend so much time
justifying herself as a woman prophet that she could not develop a social
programme, “Wentworth never moves beyond
the language of personal vindication to engage in social discourse in The
Revelation. In fact, Wentworth suggests that all that true Christians can
do is await the Apocalypse.”[12]
One can see how some prescription would be helpful in light of the
impending apocalypse but I’d suggest this misses the point of her message. The spirit is what brings life, not the letter. Wentworth became impatient with requests for
specifics, “Do not spend out thy self in answering every needless question of a
people that are never satisfied, but leave it to the truth to try it out with
them” (Pill p723.) If they are saved,
they will feel it. The truth will reveal itself to them. It seems likely that
she was unable to attract a substantial following at least partly because her
prophecies were so difficult to act upon. Wentworth describes “being under so
much reproach, contempt, and scorn because I was not willing to declare my
principles and what Religion I am of” (Pill
p765.) Her writings are also so intensely personal that they would have
been difficult to relate to, and the advertisement for England’s Spiritual Pill suggests that this was a criticism of it,
“(R)emember what the Lord saith in 8 Revel.
of Anne Wentworths, published
before, viz. They will not see how I the
Lord have placed the two spirits in a Man and his Wife, to figure out Zion and
Babylon. Stumble not and say she speaks for her self, what have we to do
with a Woman and her Husband,, etc” (p720.) Ultimately, interest in Wentworth’s
writings was short-lived and there is no record of her after 1679.
Anne Wentworth provides a powerful
critique of hypocritical patriarchal authority in her own life which she
regarded not as a private injustice but as indicative of a public spiritual
crisis which made necessary the publication of her experiences. It was these
experiences that led Wentworth to cry out to God, and receive her revelation of
the coming battle between the ‘true seed of God’ and the ‘hypocrites and
formalists’ revealed to be morally equivalent to the openly ‘wicked and
prophane.’ Having been physically and emotionally worn down by her husband and
then spiritually broken down and reformed by God, Wentworth’s prophetic self is
fashioned and speaks with power and authority. Ultimately, however, the
intensely personal nature of her writing and the absence of prescriptive
programme seem to have prevented her from obtaining any significant public
support.
Bibliography
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[1] In England’s Spiritual Pill, the anonymous supporter A.B says that one
of Wentworth’s detractors, Hanserd Knollys, once “Gave such a character of her,
from her child-hood, for her nature humility, modesty and Christianity, that I
never heard a better of any creature” (p760)
[2] All italics and capitalisations in the text quotes are present in
the primary source.
[3] Luke 12.2.3
[4] Zion is Jerusalem, the true Church of God and Babylon the corrupt
kingdom destroyed by God at the Apocalypse.
[5] In Matthew 18:17. Jesus said “if he neglect to hear the church, let
him be unto thee as an heathen man and a publican (a tax-collector.)”
[6] Revelation, pp 4,5,7, 12,
15, 17
[7] Account p 14 Revelation pp
1, 5, 13. Pill p 732, 755
[8] This is to be found in the critical section entitled ‘Wentworth’s
Goal in The Revelation.’
[9] Vindication – pp 1, 11. Pill – pp 732, 750, 755.
[10] Account- pp 8, 15, 17. Vindication – pp 1, 2, 11, 21. Revelation, pp 1,8, 11,13, 17 –pp 729,
730, 733, 739, 740,745, 749, 750, 751, 756, 771.
[11] Account p3. Vindication p6 . Pill p 765.
[12] In ‘Wentworth’s Goal in The
Revelation.’
